Importance of Tourism in London

Importance of Tourism in London The World Tourism Organization (WTO) defines tourism as the activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business, and other purposes. James Mak (2004) found that about 62 percent of international travel is leisure travel, 18 percent business travel, and the remaining 20 percent is for other purposes. Regardless of what the reason for travel may be there is a direct linkage of tourism and the economy. According to the latest provisional data from the International Passenger Survey in the first quarter of 2010, London welcomed 2.96 million visitors. Tourism is a vital contributor to Londons economy, generating approximately  £10.6 billion of overnight visitor expenditure in 2009 (Visit London: fact sheet). Evidently tourism represents a relevant source of foreign exchange earning a significant income, benefiting the London economy. This paper will attempt to explore the importance of tourism to the London economy focusing on different aspects in the industry that relate to the economic situation of London. In 2002, Mayor Ken Livingstone devised a massive plan to encourage tourism and thereby improve the economic conditions of the country. He saw tourism as an industry with great potential and therefore intended to benefit the economic situation by improving the efficiency of the system. Since then much of the Mayors plan for tourism in London has been revised and improved upon by the present mayor Boris Johnson. In Livingstones foreword to the publication he stressed that tourism is vital to Londons prosperity. Ours is a world city with unrivalled appeal London has assumed increasing importance as a premier tourist spot especially after turmoil from other rivals that deter tourists from visiting their country. For instance popular tourist spots like Luxor, Alexandria and Sham Al Sheik are now looked upon as hostile environments after the ousting of president Ben Ali in Tunisia and the massive street protests that followed. In an article posted by the Euronews (2011), a Spanish travelle r told reporters he had decided to leave Egypt because the situation is getting complicated and dangerous. He added: We cant go anywhere and we have three little daughters. This unrest in rival tourist countries makes the politically stable and hence safer London a prime tourist destination. It is evidently clear that London is ranked highest for international tourism. London is a city of proud historic tradition, authentic architecture, an entertainment capital as well as an important financial and business centre. Many foreign dignitaries besides attending to their official duties also take time to experience the city as tourists. Leisure activities have more flexibility and there is usually a range of places where particular leisure activities can be undertaken, and far less temporal constraints on their enjoyment, even if individuals are still bound by obligated, biological and work related time (Shaw and Williams, 2002) The Economic Development Strategy for London recognized that tourism and hospitality sector as one of the most significant forces in the London economy. Tourism and leisure are also important elements in labor markets, with tourism accounting for more than one million jobs in the UK alone. (Williams and Shaw, 1998) The London Tourist Boards Tourism Strategy for London has calculated that the number of jobs created by tourism in 1985 is around 275,000 full-time job equivalents. This accounts for some 8 per cent of all Londons employment. This calculation includes day visitor spend which is estimated to add 10 per cent to the total (25,000 jobs) Since then, the plan stresses on the fragility of the key economic statistics on Londons tourism as the structure of employment in the industry has changed considerably for example in the advancements of the information and communication technologies as well as part-time employment and capital investment. However, tourism is set to grow with th is increasing rate of tourism it will inevitably bring profit to the economic situation in London. The Draft London Plan forecasts that growth in employment in hotels and catering will be second only to financial and business services. Technical Report Thirteen on hotel capacity and demand predicts a 3.4 per cent annual increase in overseas visits to London between 2000 and 2020. The service sector has increased in importance, in both absolute and relative terms, in most economies in recent decades. (Knox and Agnew, 1998) As the service sector benefits greatly a multiplier effect comes into play which creates inter-firm linkages which all have much ado with the economy. The geography of the production of leisure and tourism services does share many features with other sectors (Agarwal, 2000). Shaw and Williams (2002) found that catering held strong links to the agricultural sector and also that there was coherence between inter-regional transport firms, as well as some forms of furniture producers. It is this multiplier effect that concerns the way in which expenditure in tourism filters throughout the economy, stimulating other sectors as it does so (Pearce, 1989) Although this may represent profit within the economic sector of the city Smith (1995) argues that regrettably, the abuse of multipliers often seen to be as frequent as legitimate uses thus contributing further to the industrys lack of credibility. This pessimistic view holds certain truth as corruption is well within the tourist industry, however the extent to this is not as severe as to cause a significant downfall in the economy. Another point stressed by the mayor is Londons success in the global tourism marketplace of which had a major impact on the performance of the UK tourism economy. The mayor has restated his commitment to ensuring that London continues to contribute to the wider interests of the British tourism industry. The visionary plan fittingly called Visit London will seek to sustain Londons international profile and status as a world city as it has long been established as the international gateway to the UK, according to the Tourism Company (2002), with 59 percent of overseas visitors arriving via one of Londons airports. Over half of overseas visitors spend time in London, many of whom travel by rail car and coach. This leads me to my next point, which is the importance of the travel infrastructure. Geoff Muirhead, CEO of an airport group, stressed the importance of the aviation industry in the UK economy four group airports generate more than 3 billion pounds for UK plc, and support thousands of travel and tourism related jobs. Inbound tourism is clearly good news for the British economy, while overseas travel allows UK citizens a well earned break in a sunnier climate. We need to find ways of supporting both these aspects of tourism much more effectively, given their importance to the UK economy as a whole. The hospitality and leisure development is also greatly interlinked with the development of an efficient travel infrastructure. Whitbread Chief Executive Alan Parker explained that the hospitality industry depends heavily on the infrastructure of air, road and rail links, which transport clients to the hotels. If infrastructure does not keep pace with growth, then business and tourism could drift away from the UK to other markets on the continent. In conjunction with the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic games more than 11 billion pounds of investment is set to flow into the capital between now and 2012, much of this funding goes into a range of various developments for the reconstruction of East London, particularly the transport system. Accessibility is an important aspect in tourism as tourism requires a journey, similarly the view through the car windscreen has also had significant consequences for the nature of the visual glance, enabling the materiality of the city or the landscape to be clearly appreciated (Larsen, 2001) Hence the mode of transportation is essential in creating an efficient tourist experience which undoubtedly brings revenue into the country. WTTC Chairman Geoffrey Kent commented on the infrastructural plan and said, the government must put a long term infrastructure plan with at least a 15 year horizon. The 2012 Olympic Games will provide the platform, focus and budget for this long-term plan, which will dri ve the forecasted tourist demand. The Olympic Games is not the only highly anticipated major sporting event going to be held in London as it also plays host to mass events such as tennis at Wimbledon, cricket at Lords and the Oval, and rugby at Twickenham all representing pull factors that attract the tourists. Apart from sporting activities London is also rife with entertainment, art and music scenes renowned for edge and creativity. The cultural diversity and authentic music spots such as the ever so eclectic Camden Town is just one of the many interesting places tourist visit and due to consumerism succumb to marketing ploys that inevitably benefits the citys economy. An article on Late Night London (2002) reports that 500,000 young people are estimated to go clubbing in London on a Saturday night, the club scene again gains lucratively especially as in contrast to the United States the legal age to consume alcohol in London is 18 and hence teenagers deprived of such an experience in America can enjoy in London. Tourism has brought exceptional to the city of London in terms of the economy and hence benefits the living standards of Lodoners of which become increasingly apparent. In reference to the Mayors plan, the quality of life of the locals increase tremendously with both leisure and employment opportunities. With all the development of travel and industry that is essential in fostering an efficient tourist system, in hindsight it also greatly benefits the locals, as accessibility is improved. The tourism sector accounts for 12 per cent of Londons Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and supports 13 per cent of Londons workforce. Growth in the tourism benefits London economically and crutially distributes that benefit across Londons sub-regions, communities and businesses through direct and indirect means or expenditure. In conclusion, it is evident that tourism is important to Londons economy. It is not only the source of all job opportunities but it also requires development of less industrialized areas and hence benefits not only the economy but also society. For instance the concern of addressing Canary Wharfs, located in Londons financial district, deepening infrastructure constraints, which according to a world travel and tourism council press release is jeopardizing economic prospects and seriously affects the experience of millions of travelers across the world. The development of travel infrastructure is also essential as to portray London as a Gateway to the UK and also as the travel industry is one that holds many job opportunities that can be readily distributed within the population thus increasing the quality of life of the local Londoners.

Apprentices, Planters and Special Magistrates 1834 -1838

Apprentices, Planters and Special Magistrates 1834 -1838 Introduction The Apprenticeship System was intended to provide a smooth transition for the ex-enslaved into freedom after Emancipation was declared. It also ensured an adequate supply of labour for Planters during the period it lasted.[1] The newly made Apprentices were separated into two groups: the Praedials who were to work 6 years in the fields and the Non-Praedials who were to work 4 years domestically.[2]Apprentices were supposed to learn new skills such as budgeting and saving. Planters on the other hand, were expected to introduce new technologies and get accustomed to paying wages. Special Magistrates were employed to make sure that the planters obeyed the laws and the ex-enslaved were protected. The system was implemented in British Guiana, Trinidad and Jamaica. However, Antigua and Bermuda did not implement it.[3] The aim of this study is to examine the views of the Apprentices, Planters and Special Magistrates as they recall the Apprenticeship System during the time period, 1834-1838. It is necessary to research this topic because it needs to be examined more in depth as it is not widely researched. One can obtain valuable insight from the different perspectives of the Apprentices, Planters and Stipendary Magistrates in this case. Apprentices The Apprenticeship System was not anything like what freedom should have felt like. Although it was supposed to be a transitional for many ex-enslaved it ended up being nothing more than a further period of bondage. At first they were happy in 1834 when Emancipation was granted, but later on they became confused and upset when they realised that their new freedom came with terms and conditions to abide by just as if it were enslavement continued. Apprentices did not understand this system which led to instances of protest. From time to time short strikes occurred and acts of sabotage just as during the enslavement period[4]. For example, in Jamaica. John Graskell of Mt.Sinai was found guilty of insubordination and attempting to get other apprentices to resist[5].These actions taken by the Apprentices showed that they were unhappy with the Apprenticeship system. Even though the Apprentices were supposed to be paid for any additional hours of work other than the 40  ½ hours they had to complete each week, Planters continued to frustrate them by tying wages to the rent of huts and they often took advantage of the Apprentices by making them work the extra hours for no pay as they knew that the Apprentices did not have the knowledge to calculate how long they worked and if they were getting paid accurately. Apprentices were in a weak position which did not enable them to bargain with Planters about the conditions of their employment.[6] Aside from this, Planters also punished the Apprentices by using one of the harshest punishments, the treadmill which was carried out in workhouses.[7] The Apprentices were quite confused when they received these horrible punishments and faced these frustrations because they were supposed to be treated as free men and employees. This clearly did not happen. Figure 1: Apprentices on the Treadmill       Digital Image.GeorgetownsvgrevisitedN.p., n.d.Web. http://www.georgetownsvgrevisited.co.uk/resources/Sugar-Plantations-In-South-America.jpg?timestamp=1442850837171> Plantocracy The whole idea of the Apprenticeship System was upsetting to planters, because their properties (the Africans) were granted their freedom. The planters were disgusted by the Apprentices and they did not view them as people who should be granted their freedom. Even though planters were compensated, this did not stop them from extracting as much labour as possible from the ex-enslaved before full freedom set in. They tried to exercise their usual power over the now freed people. This was especially done as they had the right to decide if an apprentices work was satisfactory or not. Even though the Emancipation Act forbade physical punishment on the plantation, it ordered each colony to set up workhouses[8] to carry out punishments there. The workhouses were dominantly controlled by the planters nonetheless. When planters discovered that apprentices would sell produce from their provision grounds or work on other properties for income, they tried to stop it by all means. If the Apprentices were making their own money they would forfeit this control that the Planters had and the Planters did not want this. They started giving Apprentices poor quality provision grounds closer to their plantation or in the case of an Apprentice always having their own provision ground the planters made it difficult for them by cutting down fruit trees or forbidding apprentices to have livestock.[9] Planters also refused to pay fair wages after the 40  ½ hours, or pay the wages on time. The vagueness of the Act allowed the Plantation Owners to manipulate the terms and conditions to their benefit and made the Apprentices suffer. The Special Magistrates The Colonial Office attempted to see that the Apprenticeship System was being carried out fairly so they sent Special Magistrates to the Caribbean. They were supposed to protect the rights of the former enslaved and settle disputes between employers and labourers. Many of the Magistrates were either retired British army officials or were civil servants.[10] However, the ratio of Special Magistrates to Apprentices was small, therefore this left the Magistrates with a lot on their hands. Their job was extremely exhausting as they had no money and worked under poor conditions. A Special Magistrates salary was insufficient and they still had to provide their own housing, food and travelling expenses[11]. As a result of this, many Magistrates were forced to take bribes from Planters such as accepting meals and lodgings, often the night before a Magistrate had to listen to an apprentices complaint against a planter. This was not fair to the Apprentices as the Magistrates opinions were bias and they were automatically on the side of the planter. Even if there were Magistrates who wanted to help they could not as they did not have the resources to do so. Fortunately, there were still a few Magistrates who carried out their jobs well and went out of their way to help apprentices and investigating their complaints, often risking their lives. For example, John Bowen Colthurst,Captain James Grady, William Oldery and William Ramsey.[12] According to historian, W L Burn, a good magistrate was one who: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ tolerated neither undue laziness on the part of apprentices nor undue severity on the part of the masters; kept their districts in order, tried to work with the governor and (while courting neither the favour of the planter nor that of the negrophilists).[13] Conclusion The Apprenticeship System failed as it was plagued by poor labour relations as Planters intended to keep their traditional power and racial dominance over the Apprentices. It also failed as a British Parliamentary Committee recommended that workhouses be taken away from local magistrates due to evidence reports sent by the Special Magistrates in 1837.[14] The planters had mixed reactions to the ending of the system. Some still wanted the system to run its full course while others wanted it to end mainly because they no longer wanted to have the expenses of providing for the Apprentices. As expected, the Apprentices were quite happy that the system was ended. On August 1 1838, laws were passed to prematurely end it[15]. At the end of Apprenticeship everyone was freed wether they were a praedial or non-praedial. Figure 2 : A gathering for the listening of the Governor reading the proclamation of the end of the Apprenticeship in the Spanish Town main square, Jamaica, 1838 Digital Image. Jamaican Echoes. [1] Dookhan, Isaac. Pre-Emancipation of the West Indies. Longman Group UK Ltd.1988. p.94 [2] http://scholar.library.miami.edu/emancipation/culture2.html [3] Beckles McD, Hilary, and Verene A Shepherd, Freedoms Won: Caribbean Emancipations, Ethnicities and Nationhood. Cambridge University Press.2006 p.9 [4] Beckles McD, Hilary, and Verene A Shepherd, Freedoms Won: Caribbean Emancipations, Ethnicities and Nationhood. Cambridge University Press.2006 p.11 [5] I bid. [6] Dookhan, Isaac. Pre-Emancipation of the West Indies. Longman Group UK Ltd.1988. p.93 [7] Claypole, William and John Robottom. Caribbean History: Foundations Book 1, Pearson Education Limited, 2009. Pg.175 [8] Extracts from the journal of a special magistrate in Barbados showed how the workhouse was used to control apprentices who worked less hard than the overseer demanded or who challenged a planter. [9] Claypole, William and John Robottom. Caribbean History: Foundations Book 1, Pearson Education Limited, 2009. Pg.178 [10] Claypole, William and John Robottom. Caribbean History: Foundations Book 1, Pearson Education Limited, 2009. Pg.175 [11] The initial salary of a Special Magistrate was  £300 but this was seen as inadequate and it was then moved up to  £450. [12] Beckles McD, Hilary, and Verene A Shepherd, Freedoms Won: Caribbean Emancipations, Ethnicities and Nationhood. Cambridge University Press.2006 Pg.13 [13] Beckles McD, Hilary, and Verene A Shepherd, Freedoms Won: Caribbean Emancipations, Ethnicities and Nationhood. Cambridge University Press.2006 Pg.14 [14] Claypole, William and John Robottom. Caribbean History: Foundations Book 1, Pearson Education Limited, 2009. Pg.178 [15] I bid.

Snow Storm Baby Essay -- Essays Papers

Snow Storm Baby The year was 1992; a cold December arctic wind had brought a chance of snow to the area. It was the weekend and time to relax after a long hard week at work. The weather service had predicted several inches of snow to blanket the region by the next day. Not to worry: it was the weekend and traveling was not a necessity. At the time, my wife Jeanne was pregnant with our soon-to-be daughter Tahlyn. We had waited eight long months for her to arrive, and finally her due date was getting closer and closer. The excitement grew stronger as the days went by. By Friday afternoon it had begun to snow and quickly several inches had accumulated. As the snow was falling, clean up quickly began. The neighborhood soon filled with children excited over the freshly fallen snow. Since all of the schools were closed, the children were assured enjoyment for several days. The sounds of the winter snowstorm were echoing throughout the town, from the snowplows in the distance, to the scraping of snow shovels that sounded like fingernails scratching a chalkboard. Neighbors were shoveling snow that had accumulated on their sidewalks and driveways. The snow that was predicted to be several inches by the end of the weekend quickly piled up to around eight inches by that evening. At times, the snow was falling so heavily you could hardly see the streetlights that glistened like beacons in a sea of snow. With the landscape draped in white, the trees hangi...

The Ethical Issues of Sex Pre-Selection Essay -- Exploratory Essays Re

The Ethical Issues of Sex Pre-Selection Although science is at a peak for overwhelming and astonishing outbreaks, the ethical issues concerning these â€Å"out breaks† have been inadequately addressed. As the options that couples that are desperate to have a child expand, so do too the expectations of whom the child becomes. Couples are able to choose a donor, of either gender, based on characteristics that they see fit to their liking. Although imperfect, couples now have the ability to choose their child’s gender. â€Å"Medicine tends to be patient-driven at the moment.† Said Charles Strom, MD, PhD, director of medical genetics at Illinois Masonic Medical Center in Chicago. â€Å"A patient needs something and physicians do all they can to provide that service, and that sometimes makes one shortcut the ethical considerations.† With our vast opportunities in reproductive technology, â€Å"one thing that’s not been well defined is what really constitutes research and what is [merely] improvement in clinical design,† Dr. Strom said. (Foubister) Sperm retrieval, in which an elec...

Evansville Sewer Replacement Project Essays -- sanitary sewer, indoor

In researching decision making topics, I chose to investigate the decisions that went into implementing the Evansville Sewer Replacement project and the impacts it had to consumers and local government officials. In order to understand and research the decisions made, I also had to explore the details of the project and what made up the initiative, its purpose, and its effect on consumers. Throughout research, it was determined that this project came about because of many factors over a period of time and the timeline of the project was based on and affected by decisions made by the city government. The purpose of the Evansville Sewer Replacement initiative is to eliminate the use of Combined Sewer Outflows (About CSOs) in the City of Evansville within twenty years (Martin). This initiative was directed by the government and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The EPA enforces the Clean Water Act of 1972, which mandates the control of these CSO’s across the United States and demands that the city prepare a long-term plan in line with appropriate water quality standards (Program Facts). Due to the city’s decision throughout history to underinvest in their sewer system, they now are faced with having to address a significant issue of updating an aging system that requires many updates in order to comply with these federal mandates at a substantial cost (Evansville Water and Sewer Utility). CSO’s are combined sanitary sewers that carry both sewage and storm water and the overage exceeds the capacity of the infrastructure (Program Facts). Around 100 years ago, many cities such as Evansville began building storm sewers to carry wastewater away from homes, businesses, and the streets. Then, with the installation of ind... ...ht Banks. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Apr. 2014. . Evansville Water and Sewer Utility. Funding Our City’s Sewer Improvements. N.p.: Evansville Water and Sewer Utility, n.d. www.evansville.in.gov. Renew Evansville. Web. 25 Apr. 2014. . Martin, John. "City, Feds Working to Finalize Plan to Curb Combined Sewer Overflows." Courier and Press. Scripps Interactive Newspapers Group, 22 Mar. 2013. Web. 12 Apr. 2014. . "Program Facts." Evansville.IN.Gov. Renew Evansville, 01 May 2013. Web. 12 Apr. 2014. . 2012 Combined Sewer Overflow Operation Plan (CSOOP) Update. Evansville: Evansville Water and Sewer Utility, 12 Nov. 2012. PDF.

Academic Achievement Essay

Academic Achievement This unit will help you: use your prior knowledge to help you understand what you are reading; practice reading for a specific purpose; make decisions about the relevance of a text in terms of reading purpose; read selectively in order to use appropriate information from the text. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ The topic of this unit concerns factors that may lead to improvement in academic performance among students. It is based on three major research projects carried out in the United States. The influence of class size on academic achievement (157–159). Task 1: Predicting text content Think about what factors can have an influence on the academic achievement of the students in a school, college, or university. Look at the following list of possible influences and rate the ideas on a scale of 1–5 (1 = very little influence, 5 = very strong influence). Influence on academic performance Resources available (e. g. , computers, laboratories, textbooks) Teacher level (qualifications, experience, etc. ) Student motivation Rating 1. 3 Add and rate some of your own ideas. Then compare your list and ratings with a partner. Focus task. Your reason for reading Text 1-1 is to get some background information to help you write the following essay. English for academic study 18 Academic Achievement 1 Task 2: Reading for a purpose 2. 1 Look carefully at the title of Text 1-1. Do you think that the text will be useful for writing an assignment about academic achievement? Share your conclusions with another student. Read the introduction to Text 1-1 (lines 1–66). As you read, try to make up your mind about how useful this text might be for your purpose. When you have finished reading, circle and complete the following sentence. 2. 2 Task 3: Reading selectively 3. 1 Read the subheading (lines 67–68) and think about your own opinion on the issue. Do you think that smaller class sizes help to improve academic performance? Circle your answer then write one reason for your choice below. 3. 2 Below are some notes that have been made by another student on Text 1-1. Read lines 67–117 and check the points mentioned in the text. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) Reading & Writing 3. 3 Read lines 69–72. What does anecdotal mean? Try to guess the meaning of this word by looking carefully at the whole sentence. If the ideas in this paragraph are anecdotal, think about how seriously you should take them into account when writing your assignment. 19 3. 4 Read lines 97–117 and underline specific information from this paragraph that you might use to help in the completion of the Focus task. Think about: †¢ †¢ 3. 5 how useful you think this paragraph might be in relation to the Focus task; whether you think the sources are reliable. With a partner, compare and justify your choice of information for all four questions. Task 4: Identifying the writer’s purpose 4. 1 Read lines 118–192 and decide on the main functions of this section of text from the choices given below. For each choice, rate the function from 0–5 depending on how sure you are (5 = very sure). Study tip It can be very helpful to recognize why the writer has written a text, or a section of a text, i. e. , what the function of the text is. Function a) To persuade the readers to accept a certain point of view. b) To explain the importance of using research data instead of anecdotal explanations. c) To evaluate the importance of the research carried out into the effect of classroom size on academic achievement. d) To describe the research method used in various parts of the US into the effect of classroom size on academic achievement. 4. 2 What is the function (or functions) of Figure 1: Milestone studies in class size (page 159)? a) to summarize the content of the text b) to outline the content of certain relevant research c) to explain the importance of the STAR project d) to compare the data from research about class size Rating Task 5: Understanding referencing in texts Referencing in a text is a way of linking words and ideas together, thus  making the text more cohesive and easier to understand. The following activity will provide practice in this important skill. 5. 1 Look at line 119 of Text 1-1. What information or idea in the text do the words these findings refer to? a) The US Department of Education b) The National Assessment of Educational Progress c) Project STAR Study tip An effective reader makes use of referencing in a text to gain a clear understanding of what the author wishes to convey. 20 English for academic study Academic Achievement 5. 2 What other words or phrases (lines 119–148) refer to the same data? a) b) 5. 3 (line number (line number ) ) 1 What reasons do the writers give for ignoring the data? Complete the list below, using a similar note form. a) b) c) d) e) 5. 4 What factors, according to the writers, made Project STAR better than other poorly designed studies? Complete the list below, using a similar note form. a) b) c) d) e) Text 1-2 A case study: Shining star (p. 160) Task 6: Reading a text for closer understanding (1) 6. 1 What general point is made in the first paragraph of Text 1-2 (lines 1–11)? Find a short phrase that best summarizes this conclusion. Reading & Writing 21 21 6. 2 In the second paragraph, which of the following benefits of smaller classes do Finn and Achilles (1990) identify in their review of the project? Answer true or false and add the line number from where you found the answer. a) Better academic performance in small-sized classes. b) Students benefit at an early stage in small classes. (line number (line number ) (line number ) ) ) c) Students later continue to perform well in normal-sized classes. ) d) Average students make the most progress. e) Minority groups gained the most significant benefits. (line number (line number f) On average, ethnic minority students improved by one-fifth of standard deviation. (line number ) 6. 3 In the final paragraph, which of the findings of Finn and Achilles (ibid. ) in Ex 6. 2 does Hanushek comment on? Put a check ( ) when Hanushek agrees and a cross ( ) when he disagrees. Write N/A if Hanushek does not mention these findings. a) b) c) d) e) f) 6. 4 To what extent do you feel that the analyses of Project STAR will help you with the Focus task? Rate your opinion 0–5 (0 = not at all). Discuss your answer with a partner. Text 1-3 The Asian paradox: Huge classes, high scores (p. 161) Task 7: Reading a text for closer understanding (2) 7. 1 Discuss with a partner or in groups what you know about academic performance in developed Asian countries, and how academic success is achieved. Read lines 1–65 of Text 1-3. As you read, remember to highlight ideas that might be useful for the Focus task. What is your understanding of the â€Å"Asian paradox†? What one word in the text (lines 17–35) gives a reason for this Asian paradox? 7. 2 English for academic study 7. 3 22 Academic Achievement 7. 4 Find other short phrases in the rest of the paragraph (lines 35–48) that might provide further reasons for the apparent academic success of Japanese students. 1 7. 5 Having read the text, have you found any information that might be useful for the Focus task? Task 8: Thinking critically about the text 8. 1 Look at the list of possible influences on academic performance in Task 1 (page 18). Are there any new influences you want to add to the table, and any you want to delete? Influence on academic performance Rating 8. 2 If you added any influences to your table, what rating would you give them, on a scale of 1–5? Task 9: Making use of the text You now have some information that may help with the Focus task that you will be given in order to complete Unit 1 of English for academic study: Writing, if you are studying that course. Reading & Writing Decide now if, and how, you can use the information in Texts 1-1, 1-2 and 1-3. 23 Unit summary In this unit you have thought about using your prior knowledge to help you understand what you are reading and made decisions about the relevance of a text in terms of reading purpose. You have learned to identify the writer’s purpose and to read selectively in order to use appropriate information from the text. 1 Complete this summary about the reading skills you practiced in the first unit with some of the words from the box. understanding meaning expertly prior title critically predictions subheadings selectively purpose It is easier to read a text if you have some knowledge of the topic that the text is about. This will help you to make and will give you a , which you always need when you read. Knowing why you are reading and what you are looking for will help you to both enjoy a text and focus on it better. Reading the and any there might be will help you to quickly know if you want to read a text and how useful it will be to you. It is important to read , especially if you are short of time. Some parts of a text will provide the information you need while other parts will be less important. You will usually read a text quickly first to get a general idea of what it is about and then read more carefully for closer and to be able to think about the content. 2 Look at these possible topics of a reading passage. How much prior knowledge do you have of each topic? Mark each topic as follows: L – I know a lot about this topic, so I could make plenty of predictions. S – I know something about this topic, and so I could make a few predictions. N – I know very little or nothing about this topic, so I wouldn’t be able to make any predictions. a) increasing traffic congestion in major cities b) special education for children with learning difficulties c) the growth in the popularity of baseball in Asian countries d) the intelligence of dolphins e) the origins of development of paper making English for academic study For web resources relevant to this unit, see: www. englishforacademicstudy. com/us/student/reading/links 24 1 1. 1 Academic Achievement. This unit will help you: think about the aims of academic study, and how to achieve them; learn about the different stages of the writing process; identify and learn how to cope with difficulties in academic writing; learn how to consider the knowledge and expectations of your reader; think about different approaches to the organization of your ideas. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Task 1: Thinking about academic success The following questionnaire, Ex 1. 1–1. 14, will help you think about your views on the meaning of academic success and aspects of academic writing. You will then be able to discuss your views with the rest of the class. What is the aim of academic study? (Please check ( ) one or more. ) to meet intelligent people to ensure having a career or future job to discover more about theories and certain known facts to discuss philosophy to enjoy learning to enable members of society to exchange ideas that are intellectually stimulating* to develop personal growth to contribute to the social and economic development of society to pass examinations to gain a higher-level degree to improve cooperation between different members of world society * intellectually stimulating: encouraging the mind to develop further 1. 2 How important is it for you as a student to develop the following characteristics while studying at university? (Check ( ) H for High importance, M for Medium importance, L for Low importance. ) H M L knowing your strengths and weaknesses thinking about how to further develop your abilities thinking about how to approach a particular task using a logical, reasoned approach to study approaching your subject in depth being interested in finding things out learning how to study communicating results successfully Study tip Working with information is a good way of helping you develop ideas. Doing a questionnaire is one example of this, but you can do this yourself by setting clear goals for reading text, e. g. , having several clear questions you would like to answer. Reading & Writing 83 1. 3 What is academic writing? (Please check ( ) one or more. ) a mechanical exercise groups of grammatically correct sentences the clear expression of ideas, knowledge and information a form of self-expression a way of exploring, addressing and expressing academic issues a way of communicating results or information. 1. 4 To write well academically, how important are the following? (Check ( ) H for High importance, M for Medium importance, L for Low importance. ) H M L reading a lot studying grammar studying vocabulary imitating other writers writing a lot inviting others to comment on your writing going back and thinking again about what you have written rewriting repeatedly until you are satisfied understanding the process of writing meeting the needs of your reader 1. 5. How important do you think the following are when writing academic texts? (Check ( ) H for High importance, M for Medium importance, L for Low importance. ) H M L grammatical correctness spelling and punctuation (using periods, commas, etc. ) an appropriate style overall organization vocabulary good ideas good use of sources (appropriate citation, bibliography) relevance of subject content English for academic study response to the task 1. 6 In which of the following ways can you support your ideas when writing academic texts?  using personal anecdotes* using facts using statistics 84. Academic Achievement using examples using the news using information from books, articles, reports, the Internet using analogies** using the views and attitudes of others using research data * anecdote: a short, often amusing account of something that has happened ** analogy: to make or draw an analogy between two things is to show they are alike in some way 1. 7 Which of the following contribute to successful academic writing? Presenting information clearly and precisely analyzing questions and issues clearly and precisely distinguishing between relevant and irrelevant material recognizing key assumptions* identifying competing points of view demonstrating excellent reasoning and problem-solving abilities adopting a critical stance** understanding the context for which you are writing * assumption: if you make an assumption that something is true, you accept it is true without any real proof or evidence ** critical stance: to take a critical stance is to have a strong viewpoint on something after examining and judging it carefully 1. 8 When persuading your professor or other members of your academic community that your argument is valid, how important are the following? (Check ( ) H for High importance, M for Medium importance, L for Low importance. ) H M L analyzing questions stating facts reasoning your argument logically from facts explaining key terms using language appropriate to a particular subject area using other points of view to  strengthen your argument or research demonstrating the weaknesses of other people’s arguments acknowledging the limitations of your own argument or research supporting your argument with examples frequently summarizing your argument referring to well-argued conclusions 1. Reading & Writing 85 1. 9 Should you always think of academic writing as communicating with another person? Why/Why not? 1. 10 What do you do, or what do you concentrate on, when you are given a writing task: a) while you are still writing your first draft? b) when you have finished your first draft? c) before you hand in your final draft? 1. 11. What type of academic writing have you done in the past? 1. 12 What difficulties do you have with writing in English or in your own language? 86 English for academic study Academic Achievement 1. 13 What do you do when you have difficulties? 1 1. 14 Do you enjoy academic writing? Why/Why not? When you have finished the questionnaire, compare your answers with those of other people in your group. Discuss your answers, and keep notes of the discussion. Do you find that you all have very similar views and experiences? Or are your views and experiences very different? Are there any general trends among students in the group? Material adapted from White, R. V. (1994). Writing English for academic study series and Richards, R. (2001). Presenting critical thinking as a study strategy for UK higher education. Text 1 Academic achievement (pp. 157–161) You will have an opportunity to read these extracts from articles in the Scientific American during this stage. This will help you identify information that is relevant to the title of your essay. Task 2: Microskills: Planning The essay that you will prepare in this unit is on the following topic: Before you begin writing, you should spend some time: †¢ †¢ †¢thinking about exactly what the question is asking you to write about; generating ideas about the topic; this is called brainstorming; organizing your ideas into a plan. Reading & Writing As part of this preparation, you should read Texts 1-1, 1-2, and 1-3 to identify relevant information. You might also find that some of the ideas generated by the questionnaire and discussion in Task 1 will help you. 87 2. 1 Discuss what you think the key words are in the essay question: a) with a partner; b) with the whole group and your instructor. 2. 2 Spend five minutes writing down all the ideas you can think of that are relevant to the essay topic. Write notes, not complete sentences, so that your ideas flow. The order of your ideas is not important at this stage. Study tip Discuss the ideas you have written in Ex 2. 2: a) with a partner; b) with the whole group and your instructor. 2. 3 2. 4 Decide which of your ideas you are going to use in your essay. Writing down ideas quickly in note form is a very good way of unlocking your understanding. As long as you let your ideas flow and don’t try too hard, you will be surprised by what you already know. a) To help you, ask yourself these questions about your readers: †¢ What knowledge about academic study do they already have? †¢ What do you think they are interested in reading about in your essay? b) When you have decided which ideas you are going to include, organize them into a logical order in a plan. You may want to develop some of the ideas further and you may want to add a new idea. †¢ Group together ideas that seem to belong to the same paragraph. †¢ Think carefully about the order in which you will arrange the paragraphs. 2. 5 Discuss your plan with your partner. When you look at your partner’s plan, ask yourself: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ What is the overall idea in the essay? Does the plan follow a logical sequence of ideas? Are the ideas grouped effectively into paragraphs? Is the main idea clear in each paragraph? How many paragraphs will the essay contain? If the answers to these questions are not clear from looking at your partner’s plan, ask her/him to explain. Perhaps the plan needs to be changed or developed more. Note: Remember your plan is your guide; when you think more and start writing, you may need to change it, so keep evaluating it. 2. 6 Think about your partner’s comments on your plan and try to improve it. Write the first draft of your essay. At this stage, you should try to write between 400 and 600 words. Study tip  It is always helpful to get another opinion. This will not only help you improve your essay writing, but also get you used to the idea of modifying and redrafting that is so important in university study. 2. 7 English for academic study 88 Academic Achievement 2. 8 When you have finished your first draft, find another student who has also finished and exchange drafts. a) Read your partner’s draft carefully. Respond to the questions on the Peer Evaluation Sheet for Unit 1 on page 141 of this book. b) When commenting on your partner’s draft, remember that constructive criticism is more helpful when giving advice. The phrases below for making polite suggestions should help you to express your comments in a constructive manner. 1 Giving Peer Feedback PHRASES FOR MAKING POLITE SUGGESTIONS †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ It might be a good idea if you †¦ It might be a good idea to †¦ I agree with you, but you could †¦ Right, but you could †¦ This is/That’s good, but you could †¦ My advice would be to †¦ Do you think a better approach might be to †¦? Why don’t you †¦? How about this? Perhaps you could †¦ Maybe it would be better to †¦ I think it would be better if you †¦ Can I/May I make another suggestion? I would recommend that you †¦ Have you thought about (verb + ing) †¦? What about †¦? Remember: Peer feedback should be supportive and helpful—provide constructive criticism. Task 3: Microskills: Introductions 3. 1 Quickly write down what you think are the important points to include in an introduction to an academic essay. Reading & Writing 89 3. 2 Discuss your ideas and explain why you have chosen these points: a) with a partner; b) with the rest of the class. Study tip EAS Writing contains suggestions for individual work as well as pair, group, and class discussion. Make full use of this varied interaction to develop your ideas. 3. 3 Answer the following questions: a) What function or purpose does the introduction of an essay have? b) What should an introduction contain? 90 English for academic study Academic Achievement 3. 4 Look at the following sentences from an introduction to an essay on The problems of population growth. a) Decide which would be the most logical order of these sentences: 1 This growth has created many problems, especially in the capital cities. This essay will discuss the situation that has led to the development of these problems and describe some of them. The population of the world has been growing rapidly over the last thirty years. It will then suggest some possible solutions to the problems and evaluate their viability. The problems include housing, pollution, unemployment, and food and water shortages. b) Compare what you think with another student and also say why you decided on the order you chose. c) Together with your partner, try to identify an obvious pattern to the introduction and decide what the function of each sentence is. 3. 5 Read carefully the following five introductions for an essay entitled Academic success in one’s own culture and try to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses. % % â€Å"(! ‘%, & ! % ! ‘ (! ) %& ‘, &( % ! ‘ #%† % & â€Å"% ( ‘ â€Å"! ! % ! ‘ â€Å"(!’% & ) %, &# ( ‘ â€Å"! &,&’ ‘ ‘ & #’ ‘† â€Å"(! ‘%, ( ‘ â€Å"! &,&’ & â€Å"% ! %† #% %, & â€Å"† ‘† & && , & â€Å"(‘ ‘ &( && ! % ! && & â€Å"! † ‘ â€Å"&’ #†%’ ! ‘ † & † ! , &'( ! ‘& ! % % &† % ) ! ‘ ‘†%& ‘† † ‘ ! ‘ & † ! ! ,†( ! !’ % † ‘ ! & ‘ ‘ ,†( &( ! ,†(% ) %, , % â€Å"&’ ! , % &'( ! ‘& ‘%, ‘† ! ‘ % † â€Å"* ) % &† &'( ! ‘& #% % ‘† &'( , ! & † & & && , * & % &† ‘†%& ‘ ‘ % â€Å"& , % ‘ ‘† &( && ! ! ! ) %, † , * & & ‘† ) &( && ! &† ‘, / ( &&0 ! ! & &† ‘, & ! â€Å"‘ â€Å"! , â€Å"% â€Å"! 1& â€Å"*! â€Å"! â€Å"% (‘ &† ‘ * † ,1& (%’ % â€Å"% â€Å"% â€Å"&’ ! & &'( ! ‘& ! ‘ %&’ &’ â€Å"(% &( && ‘ ‘ ‘ % $( % ‘† ! â€Å"† & â€Å"% ! !’ % % & â€Å"† ‘† &'( , ! ‘ & â€Å"! &’ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘! â€Å"% &'( ! ‘ ‘† ! â€Å"† † â€Å"% â€Å"! ‘% (‘ ‘† &# & ‘ â€Å"( / &( && 0 !’ â€Å"! â€Å"(% ( ‘ â€Å"! &,&’ ! â€Å"! #’ † ‘% ‘ â€Å"! ( ‘(% * ,& ‘& â€Å"(% &'( ! ‘&1 &( && % â€Å"% ‘ & && , * & % &( && ! * ! ! ! ‘ ‘ % ‘ ‘†%& Reading & Writing 91 ( ‘ â€Å"! & â€Å"! † ‘ & ‘†%& â€Å"! ‘% (‘ ! ‘† ‘ ) â€Å"# ! ‘ † &† ‘, ( ‘ â€Å"% ‘ % ‘ # â€Å"# â€Å"( % – ‘ % #†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ ! ‘ ) â€Å"† , +’ ! ! ( ‘ â€Å"! ! % ‘ # â€Å"# , #%†) ‘ % ( ‘(% † ‘( & & && , * & % ‘ ( ‘ â€Å"! &,&’ ! % ‘ & &( && ! â€Å"(% â€Å"(! ‘%, ! , ‘†%& ‘† & % ‘ ! â€Å"(! & ‘ & ‘†# ! ‘ â€Å"! ‘& #†%’ ! # ! & â€Å"! ‘ † â€Å"* ! !’ ! ‘ ! ‘ † & ‘ #† , † ‘ â€Å") %! !’ ‘ &,&’ † ( ‘ â€Å"! &(##à ¢â‚¬ %’ &,&’ ! ‘ & ‘ %&’ *†( ‘† ! ‘ !! â€Å"% ! &* % ! ‘ & $( &’ â€Å"! !’ & $( &’ â€Å"!. * ‘ ! † ‘ &% % & &( && ! # !. & & â€Å"&’ # ! & * ! &* % ‘ ‘ ‘ & ‘† % ( ‘ %† % (! ) %& ‘, % & â€Å"† % &†! ‘† & , &† ! # ! & &† ‘, ‘ % &’ † ‘ ! % % & &'( ! ‘&1 (‘(% ‘ ,† ‘ ! % ! ‘ % & â€Å"† % % #%† , ‘* ! &( && ! ‘ % (‘(% ‘ % % ( ‘! â€Å"&’ † ‘ * ‘† ! ‘ % #% &’ â€Å"(& † # ! , ! % , ‘ & & (& ( † (# ‘ â€Å"! ! ‘& â€Å"! ‘ â€Å"! & % â€Å"† % â€Å"% ! , # â€Å"# ‘ ( ‘ ‘† #% # % â€Å"% # && ! & â€Å"† + & † % ! ) ‘† &'( , % â€Å"% ‘ , † ! ‘ & â€Å"† ! %’ & % ( &’ ! & ‘ & & ‘ ‘ ‘ , â€Å"% ‘ ‘ ! ! † &'( , ! &( ‘& & && , ! ‘ â€Å"! & â€Å"‘ ) ‘ â€Å"! ‘† &'( , ! ‘% & ‘† % (# ‘ !! † &( && ! â€Å"(% ( ‘(% Edited extracts from authentic student mater ial 3. 6 Imagine you are writing an essay on the following three topics. Write a suitable introduction for each one of them. (Note that you are not going to  write the whole essay. ) a) The education system in one’s own country. b) Traveling broadens the mind. Discuss. c) The rapid development of electronic communications may mean that people will have fewer social skills. Discuss. 3. 7 When you write the second draft of your essay What are the aims of academic study and how can they be achieved? make appropriate changes to the introduction, and other parts, according to your peer feedback session. Study tip Spend time on your introduction as it plays a crucial role in the essay. It should provide the reader with a clear indication of the main areas you are going to discuss. 92 English for academic study Academic Achievement 1 Unit summary In this unit you have reflected on your attitudes and approach to academic writing skills. You have thought about the different stages of the writing process and practiced planning, writing a first draft, and giving peer feedback. You have also looked at how to write effective introductions to your essays. 1 Match the words and phrases in the box to their definitions below. They are all procedures and techniques that form part of the writing process. drafting brainstorming peer feedback organizing ideas adopting a critical stance a) Generating and noting down initial ideas about a topic without ordering them b) Putting ideas together in a logical sequence c) Deciding on and expressing your viewpoint after examining and judging possible opinions d) The process of writing and putting your essay together. Most essays will have two or more drafts and will be revised and edited after each draft. e) Comments on your essay from other students 2 Complete the sentences below on writing an academic text using some of the words from Ex 1. a) When you are given a writing task, it is important to start by b) When you write the first draft you should. c) Before you hand in your final draft 3 After working on this unit, write down ways in your notebook of how you improved your knowledge of academic writing. Reading & Writing For web resources relevant to this unit, see: www. englishforacademicstudy. com/us/student/writing/links 93 Academic Achievement Text 1-1: The influence of class size on academic achievement 1 THE INFLUENCE OF CLASS SIZE ON ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT Education is a pillar of modern society and the subject of endless, often passionate arguments about how it can best be improved. In the U. S. , there is heated 5 debate following revelations that the country’s secondary school  students perform poorly relative to many Asian and European students. The news coincided with increasing concern over the nation’s urban and 10 lower-income suburban schools, too many of which are languishing at achievement levels far below those of middle-class and upper middle-class suburban schools. Of all the ideas for improving education, 15 few are as simple or attractive as reducing the number of pupils per teacher. With its uncomplicated appeal and lack of a big, powerful group of opponents, class-size reduction has lately developed from a sub20 ject of primarily academic interest to a key political issue. In the United States, more than 20 states and the federal government have adopted policies aimed at decreasing class sizes, and billions of dollars have been 25 spent or committed in the past few years. The demand for smaller classes is also growing in Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, and even Japan, whose record of secondary school performance is the envy of 30 most other developed countries. The most obvious drawback to class-size reduction is the huge cost. It requires more teachers, more classrooms, and more classroom equipment and resources. These 35 expenses can dwarf the price of alternative schemes, such as testing teachers or increasing their pay as a means of attracting better candidates. The state of California, for example, has been spending more than 40 $1. 5 billion annually over the past several years to reduce class size to 20 or fewer for children in the four- to seven-year-old bracket. On the other hand, if smaller classes really do work, the economic benefits could be huge. 157 Reading & Writing Text 1-1: The influence of class size on academic achievement cont. 158 English for academic study smaller classes. Finally, some analysts believe that the very youngest age group in smaller classes are more likely to develop good study habits, higher self-esteem and possibly other beneficial cognitive traits— which may very well persist for years, even 95 after the students have gone back to more normal-sized classes. One way investigators have attempted to analyze the effects of class size is by reviewing existing data, such as records kept by the 100 U. S. Department of Education. These show that between 1969 and 1997, the average number of pupils per teacher in American public and private elementary schools fell from 25. 1 to 18. 3, a decline of greater than 105 27%. In secondary schools, the number also fell, from 19. 7 to 14. 0. Of concern, however, is the fact that despite these steep drops in pupil-teacher ratios, the improvement in academic performance was negligible. Data 110 from the National Assessment of Educational Progress—a series of tests that is the only United States-wide indicator of student knowledge in reading, mathematics, science WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS and other subjects—show no significant OF SMALLER CLASS SIZES? 115 gains. In some specific age and subject categories, such as 17-year-olds and science, Educators have a multitude of explanations performance actually decreased slightly. for why smaller class sizes might be expect70 ed to improve academic performance, although frequently the ideas are anecdotal. WHAT THE RECORD SHOWS Fewer students in the classroom seem to translate into less noise and disruptive However, these findings do not necessarily 75 behavior from students, which not only gives the teacher more time for class work but 120 mean that class size makes no difference. For a variety of reasons, most researchers, also more freedom to engage students creincluding the writers, pay little attention to atively—by, for example, dividing them into these figures (Figure 1). For instance, groups for specific projects. In addition, schools strive for more than just high test 80 smaller classes make it more likely that the teacher can give greater individual attention 125 scores; they also usually try to keep their dropout rate low. In fact, the dropout rate to struggling students. Smaller classes also for students aged 16–24 fell from 15 to 11 allow teachers to encourage more discuspercent over the period. Because dropouts sion, assign more writing, and closely examgenerally come from the low end of the 85 ine their students’ written work. In other words, much of the benefit of reduced class 130 achievement distribution, a reduction in dropout rate could be expected to pull down size may depend on whether the teachers average test scores in the upper grades. adapt their methods to take advantage of They would accrue not just from the benefits of a better-educated workforce but also from other sources, such as the avoided medical costs and sick days of a healthier, more informed populace. The surge of interest in smaller classes 50 has spurred fresh analyzes of the largest, most conclusive study to date, which took place in Tennessee in the late 1980s. At the same time, new data are flowing from 55 various initiatives, including the California program and a smaller one in Wisconsin. These results and analyzes are finally offering some tentative responses to the questions that researchers must answer before 60 legislators can come up with policies that make educational and economic sense: Do small classes in fact improve school achievement? If they do, at what age level do they accomplish the greatest good? What kind of 65 students gain the greatest benefit, and most importantly, how great is the benefit? 45 90 Academic Achievement Text 1-1: The influence of class size on academic achievement cont. 1 FIGURE 1: MILESTONE STUDIES IN CLASS SIZE PROJECT STATE STUDENTS PARTICIPATING APPROX. COST SMALL CLASS SIZE KEY FINDINGS STAR 1985–89 Tennessee 10,000 $12m 13–17 Significant performance benefit of 0. 2 standard deviation; larger gains for minority pupils Small performance gain of about 0. 05 to 0. 1 standard deviation; no greater gains for minorities Significant performance advantage of 0. 2 standard deviation; larger gain.

Archaeological sites in the landscape

What are the chief methods used to detect archeological sites in the landscape? Critically assess the pros and cons of the methods you identify utilizing relevant illustrations.The archeologist uses a scope of techniques to actively detect and turn up archeological sites within the landscape ; these methods are non-invasive and non-destructive and autumn into four wide classs: * Desk Top Surveys †¢ Surface Surveys * Geophysical and Geochemical studies †¢ Aerial Surveys ( Grant et Al, 2002. p5 ) . In add-on to these, some sites may be discovered by opportunity, for illustration when quarrying, dredging and peat film editing or merely out in walking in the landscape. These wide classs all complement each other and the most relevant methods in each instance will depend on the terrain of the country being investigated and the resources and clip available for probe. Besides, the inquiries being asked and the grade of truth required will hold an consequence on how these techniques are used ( Greene. 1991. p54 ) .Desk Top Surveys:The desk top study is office based and uses bing paperss such as maps, historical paperss, old archeological records, images and literature, all of which can all supply intimations and mentions to archeological sites. Maps can be used to turn up sites, and are among the most basic resources available to the archeologist. Early sixteenth century maps are non ever to scale but can be really utile, Ordnance Survey started printing maps in the early nineteenth century and, by analyzing a sequence of maps of an country, much can be learnt from the alterations in usage of the land and edifices. ( Grant et Al, 2002. p8 ) . Old tithe maps and terriers, normally found amongst the workss and documents associating to the ownership and direction of estates and belongingss, may offer penetration about forgotten sites ( Barker, 1993 ) . Although the bulk of early records have non survived, there is still a broad scope of available which the archeologist may happen of value. Legal records, including volitions and tribunal records, can supply boundaries of ownership and hints to the maps of edifices. The Domesday Book and other revenue enhancement records and tithe awards can place the economic usage and boundaries of land, Pictorial records such photographs pictures, and engravings, and descriptive histories written in books, journals and travelogues can all be of value. Of peculiar involvement is the work of William Stukeley ( 1687 – 1785 ) , an accurate and observant recording equipment who travelled extensively throughout Britain, and William Camden ( 1551 – 1623 ) , whose thorough and elaborate descriptions were published in the first general usher to the antiquities in Britain, ‘Britannia ‘ in 1585 ( Greene pp24 – 27 ) . These records can be freely found in museums, libraries and private aggregations and may offer a rare record of an archeological characteristic. Detailss of any old archeological diggings, discoveries and old study consequences are all held in local SMR and national NMR offices and can offer insight into possible sites for geographic expedition. There is frequently much truth hidden in the fables and narratives of antiquity and a survey of these may supply a hint to a forgotten or topographic point. Most traditions and myths are founded on existent people and topographic points which, over clip, can go overdone and incredible. ( Grant et al. 2002. p8 ) . By sifting the embroidery from these legends the archeologist is frequently left with a helpful factual narration. This is a inexpensive and effectual manner of reaping information, but it can be clip devouring. During interviews with local occupants in Kythera, Greece a huge sum of anecdotal information was generated on the usage of the landscape of the island, its ‘ forsaking and reuse, and the connexions between people, small towns and churches which all helped to put archeological work into context ( Johnson & A ; Wilson. 2003 ) . The desk top study is of peculiar value where probes are portion of the planning procedure to determine whether there are likely to be archeological remains which could be lost or threatened as a portion of the edifice and development of the land. ( Grant et al 2002. p6 ) . Many historical records are free to entree and can be found in libraries, museums, County Records and Archives Offices, on the cyberspace, at Local and National Sites and Monuments Records offices and in private aggregations.Surface Surveys.These are ocular studies which seek to happen hints of possible sites and are carried out, most normally, on pes. A surface study can be systematic or unsystematic, although the most normally used, is a systematic attack ( Renfrew & A ; Bahn. 2008. p78 ) . The intent is to do a study of archeological discoveries within an country to find if they might indicate to past human activity ( Lynch. 2006 ) . A grid is usually laid out on the land to help function and a squad of Walkers go over each country on the grid, entering sites and discoveries. The overall record of the types and spread of the artifacts found can give a good thought of the age of a site and its possible old utilizations ( Adkins et al 2008 ) . Fieldwalking is an effectual and comparatively inexpensive manner of appraising land and has a critical topographic point in the find of archeological sites. Once the discoveries are identified and analysed, the informations can besides assist to supply information about the day of the month of a site and its possible maps. Consequences are by and large more dependable where the part is walked repeatedly as a long term undertaking ( Renfrew & A ; Bahn. 2008. p 79 ) . It does hold some restrictions in that different fieldwalkers may hold differential types of aggregation across the same sight. Fieldwalking works best on cultivable land, but needs to be carried out at times in the cultivable rhythm when flora is low. ( Grant 2002 ) . Tesserae found during field walking at Rowler Manor in Croughton, Northamptonshire led to the find in 1991 of a Roman Villa along with a Mosaic paving ( Dawson, 2008 )Geochemical and Geophysical SurveysThe activity of worlds significantly alters the geoche mical composing of dirt, and the archeologist can utilize chemical testing to find countries of change to the dirt by human activity. The most common geophysical trial is phosphate analysis. This chemical is present in most living things and the presence of domesticated animate beings, people and workss in a landscape will increase the concentration of phosphates in that landscape. Areas of high impregnation of phosphates can so be explored farther to determine the significance of the activity ( Renfrew & A ; Bahn. 2008. p105 ) . At Plas Gogerddan, Ceredigion in Wales, geochemical analysis was used to find that entombments on this Early Christian Burial site could be identified utilizing phosphate analysis and possible grave sites of farther entombments were recorded ( Murphy 1992 ) . Geophysical surveying has developed well over the last few old ages and is used with great success in archeological site prospection. There are two chief methods of geophysical surveying, these are electrical resistively and magnetometery ( Bowden 1999. P 120 ) . Resistivity appraising involves go throughing an electrical current through investigation set into the land, and is based on the ability of sub-surface stuffs to carry on that current, By and large, higher opposition characteristics such as inhumed walls have a limited wet content and infilled ditches and cavities which retain wet will give lower readings. ( Reference ) The technique is particularly suited to the find of rock constructions. Its success is affected by local geology and besides the conditions conditions. Very dry or really wet conditions, every bit good as fluctuations in the temperature can impact the quality of the consequences as they affect rate of flow of the electric current. The electric resistance equipment is heavy to utilize and the study can take some clip to finish, but this is a cost effectual method of study. Magnetised Fe oxides are present in the dirt and past human activity alters and redistributes these, making stronger and weaker responses which can be detected as magnetic anomalousnesss. It is really portable and good for rapid surveying of land. The consequences produced can be really elaborate and they are really utile for placing inhumed ditches, cavities, kilns and fireplaces. ( Reference ) The undersoil of the land can act upon the consequences ; the most antiphonal dirts being are chalks and limestone. Igneous undersoils are the most hard to look into with this technique and the consequences on clay dirts can be fickle. Electric resistance and magnetometry techniques were used in karstic terrains in County Cork, Ireland, which identified the place of a antecedently unknown cave ( Gibson et al, 2004 ) . A figure of newer techniques including Ground Penetrating Radar ( GPR ) and Geographic Information Systems ( GIS ) are besides available and going popular tools for the archeologist. GPR was developed for usage in defense mechanism and technology. It is an expensive procedure and is of greatest value where buried sedimentations are close to the surface of the dirt. It has the benefit that it can take readings through tarmac surfaces, and hence is utile in urban environments ( Grant et al. 2002 ) . GIS is a powerful computerised function system with the ability to analyze quantitative informations, which is utile for plotting spreads of discoveries and trial hypothesis. GIS was efficaciously used at Tel Shiqmona, Israel, to carry on coastal and marine studies and to measure the potency of Maritime trading with the Phoenicians ( Breman. 2003 )Aerial SurveiesThe usage of aerial picture taking was pioneered by O G S Crawford, an Archaeologist and Observer in the Royal Flying Corps during Word War 1. Crop Markss, dirt Markss and shadow Markss all cause forms which can be observed from the air. Most aerial exposure for archeology usage are taken at an oblique angle which give better positions of a site, although they do falsify the position. It is of import to include a landmark in the exposure in order to supply a fixed point for mapping a site ( Riley 1982 ) .Aerial Photograph of Crook Laithe Settlement, Linton, Yorkshire.This technique is most effectual on cultivable land and highland countries, least effectual on to a great extent ploughed land and ineffective on to a great extent built up countries and land with plastic covering over harvests. Aerial picture taking is valuable to the archeologist and an huge figure of archeological finds have been made utilizing this method ( Riley, 1982 ) . In a study in Augacatel, Mexico, where heavy jungle prohibited the economical usage of land studies, 25 exposure were taken uncovering up to 63 possible adult male made cons tructions ( Matheny, 1962 ) The conditions conditions are of import and exposures are best taken when the Sun is low in the sky ( early forenoon or eventide ) on a clear twenty-four hours, as the shadow Markss will demo up best under these conditions ( Adkins 2002 ) . The costs of winging are expensive, but since the equipment and movie are relatively inexpensive and big distances may be covered in one flight, this is an effectual and important technique to use in archeological prospection. In add-on to these techniques, some sites are discovered rather by opportunity. In 1985, a husbandman found a figure of castanetss and a little unit of ammunition lead object on a sandbank in Orkney. After demoing his discoveries to an archeologist, this lead to the find of a Viking boat entombment ( Towrie 2010 ) . Whilst delving a well, some provincials unearthed fragments of terracotta, which lead to the find of arguably, one of the most dramatic finds of the twentieth century, The Terracotta Army of Qin Shi Huang in China ( Tianchou 1996 ) . The high cost of archeological diggings mean that it is of import for the archeologist to cognize where to delve in order to avoid expensive errors. The techniques outlined above all assist the archeologist in the find of sites in the landscape, so that future diggings can be carried out in the most cost and clip effectual mode. ‘It is singular how much can be revealed about a site without digging ‘ ( Greene 1991. P 42 ) .MentionsAdkins, R & A ; L and Leitch, V. 2008. The Handbook of British Archaeology ( revised edition ) . London. Constable & A ; Robinson Ltd. Barker, Philip. 1993. Techniques of Archaeological Excavation. 3rd Edition. London. B.T. Batsford Ltd. Bowden, Mark ( Ed. ) . 1999. Unraveling the Landscape. An Inquisitive Approach to Archaeology. Stroud. Tempus Printing Ltd. Breman, J. Journal of GIS in Archaeology. Volume I. APRIL, 2003. Marine Archaeology goes Underwater with GIS. Dawson, M. 2008. Northamptonshire Archaeology. Vol 35 2008. Excavation of the Roman Villa and Mosaic at Rowler Manor, Croughton, Northamptonshire p 45 – 93 Gibson, P.J. Lyle P. , & A ; George D.M. Aug 2004 Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, v. 66, no. 2, p. 35-38. Application of electric resistance and magnetometry geophysical techniques for near-surface probes in karstic terrains in Ireland. Grant, J. Gorin, S. & A ; Fleming, N. 2002 The Archaeology Coursebook. London, Routledge Greene, Kevin, 1991. Archaeology. An Introduction ( Revised Edition ) . London, B T Batsford Ltd. Johnson, I & A ; Wilson, A. Journal of GIS in Archaeology. Volume I. APRIL, 2003. Making the Most of Maps: Field Survey on the Island of Kythera Lynch, Tim. Nov 2006, British Heritage ; Vol. 27 Issue 5, p52-54, 3p Matheny, R.T. American Antiquity, Vol. 28, No. 2 ( Oct. , 1962 ) , pp. 226-230. Value of Aerial Photography in Surveying Archaeological Sites in Coastal Jungle Regions Published by: Society for American Archaeology Murphy, K. ( 1992 ) Archaeological Journal, Vol 149, pp. 1-38. Renfrew, C & A ; Bahn, P. 2008. Archeology: Theories, Methods and Practice. ( 5th Edition ) . London, Thames and Hudson Ltd. Riley, D.N. 1982. Aerial Archaeology in Britain. Aylesbury, Shire Publications Limited. Tianchou, Fu ( ed. ) 1996. The Belowground Army of Emperor Qin Shi Huang. Beijung. New World Press Towrie, Sigurd: 2010. The Orkney Jar. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.orkneyjar.com/history/scarboat/index.html [ accessed 8th March2010 ]